Load testing is a common practice among bridge engineers for the assessment of bridge safety and serviceability. Diagnostic load testing is one type of load test methods that can be used either as a means for estimating the load carrying capacity of an in-service bridge or as an acceptance test before the bridge is put into service [Olaszek et al, 2014]. This article provides a quick review to Diagnostic Load Testing of Bridges and its application to bridge condition assessment.

Diagnostic Load Testing

Bridge Load Testing-Diagnostic Load Tests can be used to evaluate specific response characteristics of the bridge such as lateral load distribution and secondary stiffening effects and to validate the load rating analytical models.

Diagnostic load testing usually involves installation of a variety of sensors, including:

strain gauges, acceleration sensors, displacement sensors and highly sensitive rotation devices.

Sensors are normally installed on structural components. The test is generally performed with controlled load situations. Applied loads are typically limited to legal load levels or load levels that are known to be safe for a particular structure (historical data).

​The main goal of the diagnostic load testing of bridges is to identify structural response (deformations, strains, etc.) for a given load condition. The measured responses are compared with those that are derived from the analysis of the theoretical models, for the same loading condition. Head to head comparison is then used as the basis for validating the theoretical model and defining how accurately the model simulates actual load paths [Santini Bell et al, 2013; Shahsavari et al, 2019].

The field portion of diagnostic load tests can be executed with low-cost because they can be done quickly and with minimal impact on traffic. The load testing vehicle is typically a legally loaded dump-truck and the instrumentation is installed in temporary fashion which can usually be installed in a day with a small crew. Actual tests are conducted with brief road closures or moving blockades to minimize conflicts with the traveling public.

Diagnostic Load Testing for Structural Model Calibration

The ability to calibrate a structural model is the primary concept behind diagnostic load testing. The basis of comparison can be static and/or dynamic structural responses generated by a known loading condition. Static measurements are often global responses such as midspan displacement and girder rotation at an abutment or local member cross-section responses such as axial or flexural deformation obtained from strain measurements. Dynamic measurements usually consist of acceleration, which are further processed to generate structural mode shapes and natural frequencies.

The calibration of the Finite Element (FE) models using the monitoring data helps reduce possible errors induced by simplifications or inaccurate assumptions made in model development. Wrong assumptions are mostly due to insufficient knowledge about structural details, materials properties, inevitable simplifications of the details or ignorance of the non-structural components, and boundary conditions. In the model calibration procedure, prior to refining the wrong assumptions made in the model developments, it is essential to determine the important parameters causing a deviant response in the model. The refinement attempts are required to change the recognized influential parameters and minimize the errors until the desired accuracy is achieved.

Performing load tests with moving loads can be very efficient and minimize impact on traffic, but it requires that truck position be monitored and recorded along with all the structural responses. The key part of diagnostic load testing is an apples-to-apples comparison of data. This requires a convenient method for extracting field data for specific truck positions corresponding to the simulated load cases from the model. The procedure is based on direct comparison of responses for many sensor locations and many different load cases. The load test results are a series of response histories as a function of load position.

Relative Services to Bridge Condition Assessment

When a bridge experiences an unexpected occurrence of accidental events, such as truck accident, a major concern for bridge managers is effective and informed operational decision-making with respect to the remaining capacity of the bridge. Given the load rating reduction estimated by the bridge analytical model, an integrated decision-making protocol combining different approaches will be beneficial to bridge managers for making decisions on the damaged (pre-repair) state of the structure with respect to different damage scenarios. A calibrated structural model helps establish a baseline to determine the structural system response for performance prediction and investigate the bridge decreased load carrying capacity under different damage scenarios [Shahsavari et al, 2020].

Monitoring a bridge’s structural response has the potential to:

detect the presence of structural changes for condition assessment,

inform the bridge manger to assist in daily operational decision-making,

validate the structural design assumptions,

refine a structural model of the bridge to be used for performance prediction [Read More].

Concluding Remarks

Unlike conventional load test practices which have the potential to induce damage into bridge components (e.g., PS/C girders) and reduce its serviceability, diagnostic load testing of bridges appears to be promising for determining the bridge maximum safe load capacity through analytical investigations. The structural models calibrated through controlled load tests would be beneficial for operational decisions such as those relating to maintenance scheduling and overweight vehicle permitting.

Diagnostic load testing would measure structural performance at the applied test loads but not provide any indication as to how the bridge would behave at higher loads or what the effective factor of safety would be for legal post loads. Creating a calibrated structural model that can predict the impact of operational and environmental variations on bridge performance provides support for better management strategies such as fatigue performance prediction, load rating deterioration and real-time condition assessment.

To obtain a realistic capacity, an alternative approach would be a combination of diagnostic and traditional load testing procedures in such a way that loading a bridge up to its serviceability limit without inducing any damage to the structure or cause any reduction to service life. The use of Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) sensors being deployed at critical locations may be warranted to examine bridge performance over time. The measured parameters include, but not limited to, changes in stress in critical regions, changes in deflection, identification of crack activity, etc.

​Moisture testing devices are an integral tool for the restoration industry. Though a team of professionals can employ every piece of equipment on a job site, unless the damaged or dampened building materials are free from moisture to a required standard, the job will not be satisfactory for the long term.

Tramex moisture meters make it possible to identify and track the source and extent of moisture problems without destroying the materials being tested. We design our products to fit your needs because we know working conditions on the job site, such as tight spaces, difficult to reach places, corners, curves, and textures, are challenging. These areas can only be correctly measured with the precise moisture meter.

We also know, the sheer variety of materials required to be tested demands using the right restoration moisture meter. How do you know you have the moisture meter for the restoration project? Here are a couple of things to consider:

How quickly you can get a measurement

The type of scale(s) on the meter

The depth moisture can be detected

How do you determine the best moisture meter for your next restoration project? Here's a quick overview.

The Moisture Encounter ME5 provides an instant measurement and evaluation for a wide range of building materials

The Concrete Moisture Encounter CME5 is a non-destructive meter for measuring moisture content instantly in concrete slabs 

A digital version of the CME4 handheld the CMEX II provides instant and precise measurements in concrete and other floorings (incorporating the optional Hygro-i plug-in ports transforms it into an exemplary all-in-one instrument)

The MRH III is a handheld digital moisture meter calibrated for most building materials (the optional plug-in Hygro-i2 makes it suitable for water damage restoration, flooring, checking indoor air quality, inspectors and pest companies)

A mobile and non-destructive impedance device, the Dec Scanner is excellent for surveying instant moisture of roofing and waterproofing, checking for water leaks, and integrity tests

For a pocket-sized meter, the Skipper Plus is non-destructive and is a comprehensive, safe method for detecting excess moisture in boat hulls and fittings

The handheld PTM 2.0 digital, pin-type meter takes exact measurements in wood, drywall products, and comparative WME (Wood Moisture Equivalent) values in wood by-products as well as more than 500 wood species 

The options of different moisture measurement meters from TRAMEX make it a versatile tool for restoration experts. It is precisely what professionals need to shore up the exactness required in many contracts.

With in-built quality you can trust, you can count on an investment in TRAMEX by having ownership of a quality product to bring you serviceability for years to come.

​Because of the versatility of the GEM-2 instrument, our customers are constantly finding new ways to use it. One application is the measurement of sea ice thickness in the polar regions. Both airborne and ground-based EMI (ElectroMagnetic Induction) have been used before to estimate sea ice thickness. Because of its moderate length (<2 metres) the GEM-2 can easily be mounted in a kayak or sled for towing. 

​There many parallels between ice measurements and a traditional ground conductivity survey. The simplest assumption for data analysis is a layered model, with the seawater conductivity much greater than that of the sea ice, snow and air above it. (> 2,000 mS/m vs. < 100 mS/m). But the picture is more complicated when ice-platelet clusters form under the ice. These are clumps of crystalline ice which float in the seawater on the underside of the ice layer; their density and depth, and hence bulk conductivity, are highly variable. They will cause errors in ice thickness measurements if not taken into account. 

Scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute of the Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research in Germany have developed calibration and deployment methods for characterizing sea ice shelves in the Antarctic. In particular, they have been able to exploit the GEM-2's advanced capabilities to perform more complex characterizations than simply measuring ice thickness.

Scientists conducted expeditions to various locations with and without platelet formations. They used the GEM-2 to record response at several frequencies, for different heights and correlated these results with physical measurements at that location, the 'ground truth'. They found that having independent measurements for both in-phase and quadrature at each frequency reduced the ambiguity of the recorded signal, leading to more accurate calibrations. Also they found the higher frequencies (63 kHz and 93 kHz) most useful in characterizing the platelet layer. These types of measurements are not available from more primitive single-frequency/fixed frequency instruments.

Many free-air calibrations were carried out to estimate any long-term drift and temperature dependency of the GEM-2; temperatures ranged between -10 C and -24 C . They did not observe a strong temperature dependence of the zero-level offsets for any frequency, and the instrument performed well.  The cold affected the capacity of GEM-2 batteries;  this was solved by keeping a spare battery inside someone's coat while the other battery was in use. The GEM-2 comes with a spare battery, and a battery change takes less than a minute, so near-continuous surveying is easy.

The GEM-2 itself is made of industrial-grade components rated from -40 C to +85 C, so operating temperatures are not normally an issue. 

This post is based partly on the paper "Towards an estimation of sub-sea-ice platelet-layer volume with multi-frequency electromagnetic induction sounding" by Priska A. Hunkeler, Stefan Hendricks, Mario Hoppmann, Stephan Paul And Rüdiger Gerdes. The paper is at https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/36936/

Other photos courtesy of Alfred Wegener Institute ( www.awi.de )

We partner with RTUTec to bring you an affordable solution for the #COVID pandemic. The solution employs thermal imaging cameras to measure the skin temperature of passengers, company workers, big audiences passing through certain checkpoints. People exhibiting elevated skin temperatures, which may indicate a fever, could then be isolated for further evaluation to determine the cause. Similar quarantine procedures may help minimize the spread of the Corona Virus outbreak. ThermApp MD is a vital tool for fever detection in high-risk areas.
Product Features:
Uniquely calibrated to measure temperature differences on human skin.
Supported devices: Android 8 and up.
Includes Mini Android Single Board Computer  source.
Available in a 6.8mm and 19mm lens configuration.
Please contact us for more information and orders. ​

Newly released software for the StructureScan Mini XT system. 

Visit https://lnkd.in/eTd7Xa4 to download the latest version.

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When drying concrete after water intrusions it is important to monitor and measure the moisture content of the concrete in two phases: First during the drying phase; and again after the drying is complete. This allows the restorer to establish valuable knowledge of how the drying process is progressing and, once the drying process is complete and the concrete has been brought back to pre-loss conditions, decide what mitigation, if any, will be required before reinstalling a floor covering. In order to monitor and measure the moisture content of the concrete in a meaningful way the restorer needs to understand the different test methods, the meaning of their results and how they relate to the restoration industry compared to the flooring industry for which these test methods have been developed. This is an important point to keep in mind because the testing methods prescribed were designed for the flooring industry to test the drying process of newly poured concrete and establish when it is dry enough to receive a floor coating or covering. This is different to the restoration industry as the goal here is to dry the concrete back to pre loss conditions. Equilibrium Relative Humidity as per ASTM F2170, Calcium Chloride vapor emission testing as per ASTM F1869 and non-destructive Electrical Impedance measurement as per ASTM F2659 are the most commonly specified tests for measuring the moisture in concrete in the United States. ​

​F2170 and F1869 are both considered quantitative tests whereas F2659 is considered qualitative and while the differences are about how the tests are perceived rather than what they are actually measuring, this will mean that most flooring manufacturers will require that either F2170 or F1869 are carried out before a floor can be installed. In fact, both F2170 and F1869 both measure the water vapor, not the moisture content, in concrete and as such they are very impractical tests to carry out during the drying phase as they require the building to be in service condition for at least 48 hours before the testing can begin. This is due to the fact that changing environmental conditions will affect the relationship between the water vapor and the water. Most tests which have been developed for the flooring industry are designed to measure the construction moisture within the concrete and not the moisture from intrusion or other external sources.

As such it is important to be able to distinguish between the different sources when inspecting concrete after water damage, and the best way to do this is to look at the results from a variety of test methods. The restorer needs to be able to identify background moisture which could either be from construction moisture still in the slab, or moisture which is still entering a slab from beneath if there is an insufficient sub floor sealer, or from above if there are dew point issues or leaks in the building. Without this understanding it is common for restorers to attempt to dry against nature and waste a lot of energy drying moisture which will possibly return after the drying has been completed. This is especially important if the moisture is coming from beneath the concrete due to the absence of a sealer.

By using an electrical impedance device, which gives instant and repeatable results, to map and monitor the moisture during the drying phase, a restorer is able to focus on the changes in readings rather than the readings themselves. At the beginning of the drying process the moisture content readings will be high and should rapidly reduce as the drying progresses. As the drying progresses the difference between readings over time will decrease and this will help determine when the drying is complete. The mapping of these readings will also indicate where to test further once the building is back in an in-service condition, using either Relative Humidity testing as per ASTM F2170 or Vapor Emission testing as per ASTM F1869. If the impedance device used indicates a percentage moisture content value (MC%) of the slab then this information can be very useful when further testing with Equilibrium Relative Humidity testing.

For example. Relative Humidity testing per F2170, when used as a stand-alone test, is prone to giving false positive readings and possibly false negative readings due to the quality of the concrete;- false positive readings due to the concrete having less air movement when it is of a high quality; and false negative readings due to uncured materials such as salts lowering the equilibrium relative humidity. If the results of the non-destructive impedance test and the Relative Humidity test do not concur then it is possible to do further simple testing which can complete the information needed. The combination of ambient testing, surface concrete temperature testing, in situ RH testing and non-destructive impedance testing will cover the majority of the testing needs, with calcium chloride testing only used when the results of the others do not concur. The use of multiple, yet simple testing methods allows for a complete picture of the moisture condition of the slab. The approach of marketing one test method over another has, in my view, done a disservice to the industry. The combination of tests helps draw a much better and more complete picture, as long as it is clearly understood what exactly is being measured with each test method and how they can be affected by the different ambient conditions that arise during the entire restoration process.

​Obtaining as much information about the roof as possible in advance is invaluable. A set of roof drawings or plans make moisture mapping much easier and a knowledge of the construction will make the job of calibration much faster. 
If a set of drawings or roof plan is not available, prepare a plan and report sheets for each section being surveyed or, better still, use the Tramex Moisture Mapping App. To perform a non-destructive flat roof moisture inspection to ASTM D7954 with the Dec Scanner, first ensure that the surface is free of debris and is dry from rain or dew. Aggregates may be left in place but should be dry and of uniform thickness. 

​Once calibration and range selection is complete, proceed by moving the Dec Scanner along the imaginary gridlines in a continuous, systematic manner. The Dec Scanner is designed to cover the width of an average roll of roofing felt, making it simple to follow a systematic row-by-row methodology. Mark areas of concern onto the roof plan/Tramex Moisture Mapping App as well as directly onto the roof surface if required. Marking the surface directly can be helpful for finding the precise location for core samples later. Areas where the roof has non-uniform composition or thickness, such as areas which have been recovered or seams, should be tested and noted separately as they may provide different results. By continuously checking this way, a complete picture of the moisture condition can be built up quickly. An area of up to 100,000 sqft can be reasonably covered in one day.

The Crosshole Seismic (CS) system and method determine shear and compressional wave velocity versus depth profiles. From these measurements, parameters, such as Poisson’s ratios and moduli, can be easily determined. In addition, the material damping can be determined from CS tests. These dynamic soil and rock properties are often utilized for earthquake design analyses necessary for certain structures, liquefaction potential studies, site development, and dynamic machine foundation design. The most complete version of this downhole system, as manufactured by Olson Instruments, is comprised of a borehole source capable of generating shear and compressional waves and a pair of matching three component triaxial geophone receivers. These instruments are lowered to the same depth in boreholes set at ~ 10 ft (3 m) apart in a line. The instruments are coupled to the side of the grouted borehole inclinometer casing, allowing for the detection of shear and compressional waves as they pass between the receivers.

The Downhole Seismic (DS) investigations are similar to CS investigations, but require only one borehole to provide shear and compressional velocity wave profiles. The DS method uses a hammer source at the surface to impact a wood plank and generate shear and compressional waves. This is typically accomplished by coupling a plank to the ground near the borehole and then impacting the plank in the vertical and horizontal directions. The energy from these impacts is then received by a pair of matching three component geophone receivers, which have been lowered downhole and are spaced 5 to 10 ft (1.5 to 3 m) apart.

Features:
■ Real-time waveform display while testing
■ Thin layers, which are often invisible to surface methods, can be detected with CS/DS investigations
■ Acquisition and processing software are easy to use, yielding fast and accurate results
■ CS method is the most accurate method for determining material properties of rock and soil sites
■ Accuracy and resolution for the CS test method are constant for all test depths, whereas the accuracy and resolution for
the DS surface method decreases with depth
■ Sources and receivers can be oriented with inclinometer casing dummy probes
■ P-SV source used in CS tests can impact in the up, down, and radial directions
■ Correlation between CS and Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW) tests on soil sites showed that the values from both tests typically compare within a 10-15% difference

The CS investigation requires drilling of two or more (ideally three) boreholes cased with PVC or slope inclinometer casing
for deeper borings up to 328 ft (100 m), and grouted in accordance with ASTM standards to ensure good transmission of wave energy. The boreholes are typically 4-6 inches in diameter cased with 2.32 to 3 inch (59 to 76 mm) I.D. casing. The testing is simplified if inclinometer casing is used rather than normal PVC pipe. Typical distances between adjacent in-line boreholes are on the order of 10 ft (3 m). The testing is performed by lowering both the source and receiver(s) to an investigation depth, firing the source, and recording the energy with the receivers. 

The DS investigation requires drilling a single borehole with similar specifications as listed above, except that only a single grouted 2 inch (50 mm) to 3 inch (76 mm) I.D. PVC casing is needed. The testing is performed by lowering the receiver(s) to an investigation depth, impacting the coupled surface plank, and recording the energy with the receivers.

Ourtreasure and metal detectors are characterized by easy use. So is the Rover UC, a metal detector and ground scanner disguised as a walking stick, which is ready for use immediately after unpacking. Via Android App the user adjusts settings and starts the measurement. Moreover, the measured data can be evaluated directly on the smartphone display. Thanks to its inconspicuous appearance, the metal detector Rover UC allows treasure hunting even in more frequented places.

During individual trainings, our customers familiarize themselves with the special features of the metal detectors and ground scanners. This basic training focused on typical errors when using ground scanners like the Rover UC and provided instructions, tips and tricks how to detect objects successfully and analyze the scan data properly.

With to the following quick start guide, treasure hunters are 5 steps closer to discoveries of treasure troves, burial chambers and cavities even in rough terrain.

1. Use auxiliary lines
Especially for beginners it can be very helpful to limit the measuring field beforehand by small markings such as auxiliary lines on the ground. This guarantees that the measuring paths always have the same length. Additional markings like straight lines further help the treasure hunter to walk parallel paths in the measuring field and to ensure that the tracks have the same distances. In this way the measurement data is not distorted and can be properly analyzed by the user afterwards.

2. Set the size of the measuring field
Experienced treasure hunters are usually able to estimate their measuring field quite well. If the user notices after the measurement that the scanned area is smaller or larger than previously estimated, the size of the measuring field can easily be adjusted afterwards via app. The measurement data is automatically adapted to the new information.

3. Complete your scan for best measurement results
The joy of successful treasure hunts and about detected objects is great, of course, and can be especially overwhelming as soon as conspicuous objects and anomalies are detected. Nevertheless, for correct scan results, the measurement must be completed. If the measurement with the ground scanner is interrupted at the spot of the find, the size and details of the detected structure remain uncertain – maybe it is a tunnel or a long artifact such as a weapon? In order to determine the size of the object precisely, the entire measuring field must be scanned.

4. How to analyze 3D Ground Scans
3D ground scanners like the Rover UC offer a fast and efficient analysis of the measurement data directly on the smartphone: With only one finger touch the 3D graphics on the touchscreen can be rotated and enlarged. The app allows to determine the size, position and depth of detected objects more accurately. For more detailed results, users may transfer the scan data to the PC and use the Visualizer 3D software for further analysis.

​5. How to discriminate metals
Whether the detected objects are ferrous or precious metals can be clarified with further functions: Rover UC can also be used as pin pointer to retrieve previously detected objects during excavation. The magnetometer mode is used especially for the localization of ferromagnetic metals such as iron, cobalt and nickel. With this function, objects such as iron nails and screws can be distinguished from valuable artifacts.

​With recent advancements in Sensor technology, Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) systems have been developed and implemented in various civil structures such as bridges, buildings, tunnels, power plants, and dams. Many advanced types of sensors, from wired to wireless sensors, have been developed to continuously monitor structural condition through real-time data collection. However, there are still a remarkable number of questions associated with the use of SHM sensors. For designing a SHM system, one of the critical missions is discovering how to determine an appropriate type of sensor that can efficiently meet the scopes of the designed sensing system. This article aims to present a brief review to different types of sensors for structural health monitoring and real-time condition assessment of structures.

Smart Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring
Structural health monitoring heavily relies on collecting accurate and high quality real-time measurements of structural element condition, communicating this information with control system, and signalling necessary warnings should an irregular pattern is ever observed. Sensors for structural health monitoring are designed to facilitate the monitoring process, and enabling maintenance engineers with decision-making tools, which will ensure the safety of the facility, and the public. A typical health monitoring system is composed of a network of sensors that measure the parameters relevant to the current state of the structure as well as its surrounding environment, such as stress, strain, vibration, inclination, humidity, and temperature.
The latest advances in research on sensor technology for structural health monitoring has been resulted in various types of SHM sensors. The following provides a brief review to the most widely used SHM sensors for structural monitoring.

1. Fiber Optic Sensors
Fiber optic sensors have been under great development in recent years. In civil engineering, these sensors can be used to measure different parameters such as strains, structural displacements, vibrations frequencies, acceleration, pressure, temperature, humidity and so on. The monitoring of the structure can be either local, concentrating on the material behavior or global, concentrating on the whole structural performance. Fiber optic sensors have been tested for different applications such as strain monitoring of concrete components in a bridge [G. T. Webb et al, 2017].

2. Accelerometer for Structural Health Monitoring
An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that measures acceleration forces. Such forces can be static, like the continuous force of gravity on structural components, or dynamic to sense motions or vibrations like when a truck crossing a bridge. The application of accelerometers extends to multiple disciplines, from smart phones to rotating machinery and civil infrastructure. In the context of structural monitoring, the accelerometers can be used for real-time monitoring the variations of structural dynamic characteristics due to damage or change in structural performance [Chih-Hsing Lin et al]. The accelerometers are manufactured in single or multi-axis models to detect magnitude and direction of the proper acceleration. Accelerometers have also a wide use in constructions where there is a need to control the dynamic behaviour of the structure, either short or long term [Ref].
Piezoelectric accelerometer: A piezoelectric accelerometer is an accelerometer that employs the piezoelectric effect of certain materials to measure dynamic changes in mechanical variables (e.g., acceleration, vibration, and mechanical shock). This type of vibration transducers offers a very wide frequency and dynamic range. Piezoelectric accelerometers are used in many different industries, environments and applications. Piezoelectric measuring devices are widely used today in the laboratory, on the production floor, and as original equipment for measuring and recording dynamic changes in mechanical variables including shock and vibration [Ref].

3. Vibrating Wire Traducers
Vibrating wire sensors are a class of sensors that are very popular in geotechnical and structural monitoring. The fundamental component of the vibrating wire sensor is a tensioned steel wire that vibrates at a resonant frequency that depends on the strain in the wire. This mechanism is used in a variety of sensor configurations to measure static strain, stress, pressure, tilt, and displacement. The use of frequency, rather than amplitude, to convey the signal means that vibrating wire sensors are relatively resistant signal degradation from electrical noise, long cable runs, and other changes in cable resistance. This has contributed to their reputation for long term stability and wide usage for monitoring structures such as dams, tunnels, mines, bridges, foundations, piles, unstable slopes, and excavations.
Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge: Vibrating wire strain gauge is an old technique with its roots in the early 20th century. A thin steel wire held in tension between two end blocks makes a vibrating wire. A transverse vibration is excited by a short pulse of an electromagnet with surrounding coil positioned near the midpoint of the wire. The frequency of the vibration varies with the tension of the wire. If the distance between the end blocks changes, the natural frequency will change as well. The coil measures both the natural frequency and its changes. This gauge measures strain in a variety of materials and it can be easily cast or embedded in concrete. The frequency signal can be transmitted over long led cables to a readout unit and monitored. These sensors are widely used in different applications like bridges, tunnels and other large structures.
Vibrating Wire Displacement Transducer: Vibrating wire displacement transducers are designed to measure displacements across joints and cracks in concrete, rock, soil and structural members. In essence, the transducer consists of a vibrating wire in series with a tension spring. Displacements are accommodated by a stretching of the tension spring, which produces a commensurate increase in wire tension. These sensors are mostly used for crack width measures for example in bridges and tunnels.

4. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
An LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) is an electromechanical sensor used to convert mechanical motion or vibrations, specifically rectilinear motion, into a variable electrical current, voltage or electric signals, and the reverse. One can use LVDT in the applications where displacements to be measured are ranging from a fraction of mm to few cm's. LVDT position sensors are frequently used in testing and structural monitoring applications. These sensors are ideal for recording displacements on structural members due to live loads and temperature variations.

5. Load Cells
A load cell is a type of transducer, specifically a force transducer. It converts a force such as tension, compression, pressure, or torque into an electrical signal that can be measured and standardized. As the force applied to the load cell increases, the electrical signal changes proportionally. Load cells have found their applications in a variety of fields that demand accuracy and precision. These sensors are employed in many historic buildings, where various building materials such as stone and brick have been used [Ref].

6. Strain Gauges in Structural Health Monitoring
The most common type of load cell used in structural monitoring is strain gauge. A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object. The most common type of strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change is related to the strain by the quantity known as the Gauge factor. These sensors are widely used to monitor strain in steel structures and reinforced concrete structures [Ref].
Strain Gauge Rosette: A strain gauge rosette is one type of strain gauge composed of two or more strain gauges that are positioned closely to measure strains along different directions of the component under evaluation. Single strain gauges can only measure strain effectively in one direction, so the use of multiple strain gauges enables more measurements to be taken, providing a more precise evaluation of strain on the surface being measured [Ref]

7. Inclinometer (Tiltmeter)
An inclinometer or clinometer is an instrument used for measuring angles of slope (or tilt), elevation, or depression of an object with respect to gravity’s direction. These sensors are suited for monitoring structures, the towers of vertical lift bridges, and monitoring twist in structural elements [Ref].

8. Acoustic Emission Sensor
Acoustic Emission (AE) Sensors measure high-frequency energy signals that are generated from local sources of stress waves. Discontinuities and defects in a material produce stress waves, which then propagate to the material’s surface and are picked up by the active AE sensor. By converting these waves into electrical signals, AE is an ideal technique to effectively assess the behavior of materials under stress. These sensors are mainly used to detect the onset or growth of existing cracks in structural components [Ref].

9. Temperature Sensors
Civil engineering structures are subjected to the environmental changes and therefore it is necessary to measure the temperature that affects to some extend every physical process [Ref]. Thermocouples are one of the most widely used temperature sensors to control the temperature in certain points of the structure. Most of the large concrete structures have a lot of thermocouples installed while casting and under construction in order to have a full control over temperature changes under curing.